Dry Spells in Malawi

Analysis last updated 2021-07-21

Background

This is a descriptive summary of the groundtruth dataset of dry spells in Malawi that was created to inform the OCHA Anticipatory Action pilot. More information about the trigger mechanism for OCHA Anticipatory Action in Malawi or the computation of the dataset can be found here.

We identified, for each district (n = 32), all dry spells that occurred during their rainy season. To do so we identified the onset and cessation date of the rainy season for each district and every year. We report on the characteristics of the rainy seasons as well as the dry spells.

Data Source

We chose to use CHIRPS as data source of historical precipitation. Different data sets exist, but among those that we had access to CHIRPS generally shows good accuracy in Malawi (Zhao and Ma 2019). A caveat of CHIRPS, and many other observational precipitation datasets is that they tend to overpedict precipitation below 1mm (Dinku, Ceccato, and Connor 2011; Dembélé and Zwart 2016). We used the CHIRPS data between 1 Jan 2000 and 31 Dec 2020 at 0.05-degree resolution.

Definitions

Many different definitions of a dry spell, rainy day, rainy season onset, and rainy season cessation exist. The following definitions were used in the current analysis, based on literature and consultation with partners.

Dry spells: At least 14 consecutive days with a cumulative rainfall of no more than 2 mm during the rainy season in an ADMIN2 region. This definition was provided by the World Food Programme (WFP) who also shared impact survey data (MVAC).

Rainy day: At least 4mm of rainfall on a calendar day (DCCMS, according to Kimaro and Sibande (2008)).

Rainy season onset: First day of a period after 1 Nov with at least 40mm of rain over 10 days AND no 10 consecutive days with less than 2mm of total rain in the following 30 days (DCCMS, according to Kimaro and Sibande (2008)).

Rainy season cessation: First day of a 15-day period after 15 March with 25mm or less of rain (DCCMS, according to Kimaro and Sibande (2008)). The cessation date is the first day of this 15 day period.

Rainy season duration: Rainy season cessation date minus rainy season onset (in days).

Methodology

The CHIRPS data is released as raster data, so we aggregated this to district (admin2) level, by extracting the mean value of all raster cells whose center lied within the district. It was chosen to compute the analysis on the district (admin2) level, since this gives a higher granularity for anticipatory actions than on region (admin1) level. Moreover, it was chosen to not go down to TA (admin3) level since the spatial uncertainty in the data is too high to predict on such a small scale. Besides the admin level, a methodology has to be chosen to aggregate the raster cells to the desired admin level. It was chosen to use the mean of the raster cells within a district, since this allows us to detect relatively widespread events without missing events due to a small part of the district receiving more precipitation. Different methods of aggregation were tested, such as looking at the percentage of cells in a dry spell. This data is available upon request.

After we extracted the mean rain fallen within a district for every day over the last 20 years, we then computed the 10-day, 14-day, and 15-day rolling sums for each district. The earliest records in the dataset were assigned rolling sums of NA (non-applicable) until at least 10/14/15 records were available, respectively. Using these sums, the dry spells and rainy seasons were computed.

“Total rainfall” was summed over the relevant period and rounded to the first decimal.

Caveats

We believe the created datasets on rainy seasons and dry spells create insights that weren’t available up to now. Simultaneously, these datasets are not perfect. To be aware of these, we list the caveats that we came across while creating and working with these datasets.

  • The definition of a dry spell being used is only one of many. Many different definitions exist, which differ in the number of days and precipitation caps (Usman and Reason (2004); Mathugama and Peiris (2011); Kimaro and Sibande (2008); Mittal et al. (2021)).
  • Overlapping dry spells can exist due to using the cumulative rainfall over 14 days to determine the end of a dry spell. This might cause one dry spell to “end” when the cumulative rainfall is 2.1mm. While from midway that first dry spell to 14 days later the cumulative rainfall can also be less than 2mm, causing a second overlapping dry spell to be registered.
  • The definition of a dry spell being used is purely based on precipitation, and not on impact. We did an analysis to relate the dry spells to impact, but this remains challenging. Different factors contribute to the impact of a dry spell, for example the timing in the year, and the temperature during the dry spell.
  • Related to the impact, shorter dry spells might influence crops but go undetected in this dataset. Due to requiring 14 days with no more than 2 mm cumulative rainfall, one day in the middle with 2.1mm of rain will cause no dry spell to be detected. Nevertheless, this kind of phenomenon might have a significant impact. This is a direction that should be researched further.
  • No precipitation dataset is perfect. We chose to use CHIRPS as explained in Data Source, but it would be a good practice to validate results with different datasets. Especially ground station data would be valuable here, but this is data that isn’t openly accessible for Malawi.
  • As explained in Methodology, we downscaled the observational raster data to admin2 level. We did this by taking the mean value across all cells within the admin2. We believe this is a valid method for our purposes, but one should be aware that other downscaling methods can give different results.
  • Due to the definition of the rainy season, no dry spell can be registered within 40 days after the start of the rainy season. This means that the earliest dry spell can only start mid-December. This might be limiting, since prolonged dry periods can already significantly impact crops during planting which often occurs in November and December.

Rainy Seasons

We identified the onset and cessation date of every rainy season between 2000 and 2020 for each district (n = 32). Rainy seasons are labelled after the year in which they begin. Seasons that began in the Fall of 1999 and 2020 are not reported on since the dataset only had partial data for them (since the dataset did not include 1999 data and the 2020 season is ongoing). We also note that the 2020 season in certain districts had not met our onset definition by 31 Dec 2020.

 

Onsets

Based on our definition, rainy seasons started in Nov, Dec, Jan, or Feb. November and December were the most common onset months.

Rainy Season Onset Months (% of seasons)
Region District Nov Dec Jan Feb
Central Dedza 28.6 61.9 9.5 0.0
Dowa 28.6 66.7 4.8 0.0
Kasungu 38.1 61.9 0.0 0.0
Lilongwe 47.6 42.9 9.5 0.0
Lilongwe City 28.6 61.9 9.5 0.0
Mchinji 38.1 57.1 4.8 0.0
Nkhotakota 28.6 71.4 0.0 0.0
Ntcheu 38.1 52.4 9.5 0.0
Ntchisi 23.8 66.7 9.5 0.0
Salima 23.8 71.4 4.8 0.0
Northern Chitipa 38.1 61.9 0.0 0.0
Karonga 28.6 71.4 0.0 0.0
Likoma 33.3 57.1 9.5 0.0
Mzimba 38.1 57.1 4.8 0.0
Mzuzu City 38.1 57.1 4.8 0.0
Nkhata Bay 61.9 33.3 4.8 0.0
Rumphi 38.1 57.1 4.8 0.0
Southern Balaka 33.3 57.1 9.5 0.0
Blantyre 57.1 33.3 9.5 0.0
Blantyre City 61.9 28.6 9.5 0.0
Chikwawa 52.4 42.9 4.8 0.0
Chiradzulu 61.9 28.6 9.5 0.0
Machinga 47.6 47.6 4.8 0.0
Mangochi 33.3 61.9 4.8 0.0
Mulanje 66.7 23.8 9.5 0.0
Mwanza 57.1 33.3 9.5 0.0
Neno 61.9 28.6 9.5 0.0
Nsanje 47.6 38.1 9.5 4.8
Phalombe 66.7 28.6 4.8 0.0
Thyolo 66.7 23.8 9.5 0.0
Zomba 57.1 38.1 4.8 0.0
Zomba City 66.7 28.6 4.8 0.0

   

We note significant variability in the typical onset of the rainy season by location. For instance Zomba City’s onsets have been 23.4 days post 1 Nov on average while Likoma’s have averaged 39.2 days post 1 Nov. The majority of districts (n = 18) had at least 1 rainy season start before the 5th of Nov (specifically, met the definition of rainy onset before 5 Nov). All districts experienced late onset rainy seasons that started 52 - 107 days after 1 Nov.

Rainy Season Onsets (in Days Since 1 Nov)
Region District Earliest Latest Mean
Central Dedza 11 72 36.1
Dowa 16 64 36.2
Kasungu 11 55 32.8
Lilongwe 10 72 33.7
Lilongwe City 11 72 36.6
Mchinji 10 72 32.7
Nkhotakota 11 52 34.3
Ntcheu 3 73 32.3
Ntchisi 23 68 37.5
Salima 25 64 38.4
Northern Chitipa 2 56 32.9
Karonga 15 59 37.6
Likoma 15 73 39.4
Mzimba 5 63 33.6
Mzuzu City 1 65 32.7
Nkhata Bay 0 63 25.6
Rumphi 7 64 33.0
Southern Balaka 3 74 33.2
Blantyre 1 75 31.0
Blantyre City 2 75 28.8
Chikwawa 4 76 31.1
Chiradzulu 2 75 29.9
Machinga 3 73 32.3
Mangochi 3 71 35.1
Mulanje 0 75 24.5
Mwanza 1 75 30.1
Neno 0 75 28.2
Nsanje 3 107 34.0
Phalombe 1 62 25.5
Thyolo 0 76 27.1
Zomba 1 63 29.5
Zomba City 0 62 23.4

 

Cessations

Overall districts saw their rainy seasons end anywhere between 134 and 210 days post 1 Nov (around 15 March and 30 May, respectively). Similarly to the onset, districts varied in the typical end of their rainy season. Per district, averages ranged from 141.2 to 167 days post 1 Nov.

Rainy Season Cessations (in Days Since 1 Nov)
Region District Earliest Latest Mean
Central Dedza 134 166 148.1
Dowa 134 163 145.8
Kasungu 134 161 147.5
Lilongwe 134 167 150.0
Lilongwe City 134 163 146.9
Mchinji 134 167 149.4
Nkhotakota 134 171 155.5
Ntcheu 134 161 143.9
Ntchisi 134 164 149.8
Salima 134 154 144.2
Northern Chitipa 137 183 162.1
Karonga 137 191 167.0
Likoma 134 164 149.2
Mzimba 134 166 152.7
Mzuzu City 134 171 154.7
Nkhata Bay 134 210 162.3
Rumphi 135 184 160.0
Southern Balaka 134 153 141.2
Blantyre 134 160 145.4
Blantyre City 134 163 147.0
Chikwawa 134 160 144.1
Chiradzulu 134 163 146.2
Machinga 134 163 146.3
Mangochi 134 161 144.5
Mulanje 134 173 149.8
Mwanza 134 160 143.8
Neno 134 162 146.5
Nsanje 134 163 144.7
Phalombe 134 163 147.0
Thyolo 134 166 147.0
Zomba 134 166 148.2
Zomba City 135 201 151.0

 

Durations

Overall the shortest season stood at 44 days while the longest covered 176 days. As for onset and cessation dates, the duration of the rainy season varied significantly per district as well. The shortest and longest averages were observed in Salima (106.8 days) and Nkhata Bay (137.8 days). We note that only 6 (18.75%) districts experienced rainy seasons lasting at least as long as the growing season for maize (125 days) every year in the period examined.

Rainy Season Durations (in Days)
Region District Shortest Longest Mean Nbr of 125+day Seasons
Central Dedza 72 152 113.1 7
Dowa 82 134 110.6 2
Kasungu 80 151 115.8 5
Lilongwe 84 153 117.5 7
Lilongwe City 83 152 111.3 3
Mchinji 78 153 117.9 7
Nkhotakota 83 154 122.0 10
Ntcheu 71 152 112.5 4
Ntchisi 83 138 113.5 6
Salima 83 126 106.8 1
Northern Chitipa 105 159 130.2 13
Karonga 104 156 130.7 14
Likoma 80 139 110.3 3
Mzimba 80 149 119.8 9
Mzuzu City 79 157 122.7 11
Nkhata Bay 82 176 137.8 17
Rumphi 91 151 127.8 12
Southern Balaka 70 140 108.8 2
Blantyre 69 149 115.4 7
Blantyre City 69 152 119.1 7
Chikwawa 70 149 114.0 6
Chiradzulu 69 156 117.2 6
Machinga 71 147 115.0 6
Mangochi 73 147 110.3 4
Mulanje 91 168 125.6 9
Mwanza 69 152 114.6 6
Neno 69 153 118.6 8
Nsanje 44 149 111.8 6
Phalombe 79 152 122.6 9
Thyolo 80 153 121.0 9
Zomba 88 151 119.8 8
Zomba City 93 165 128.9 12

 

The boxplot below shows the duration across districts per rainy season. We can see clear differences in average rainy season duration across districts between the year. Moreover, some years very different patterns were observed across districts, indicated by a longer bar.

Total rainfall

The total rainfall during each rainy season was also computed per district, and can be seen in the boxplot below. Similarly to the boxplot on rainy season length, we can see differences across years as well as districts.

Dry Spells

A dry spell was included if at least 1 day on which the criterion was met fell during the rainy season. In other words, a dry spell was included when it overlapped with the rainy season, even if it started before or ended after it. The graph presents the occurences of dry spells over time. Each line indicates a district, i.e. the more red lines at the same time the more widespread the dry spell was. A summary per district follows in table format.  

Dry Spells During Rainy Seasons
Duration
Region District Nbr of Dry Spells Min Max Mean
Central Dedza 0 NA NA NA
Dowa 0 NA NA NA
Kasungu 0 NA NA NA
Lilongwe 0 NA NA NA
Lilongwe City 0 NA NA NA
Mchinji 0 NA NA NA
Nkhotakota 0 NA NA NA
Ntcheu 1 24 24 24.0
Ntchisi 1 19 19 19.0
Salima 1 25 25 25.0
Northern Chitipa 0 NA NA NA
Karonga 0 NA NA NA
Likoma 0 NA NA NA
Mzimba 0 NA NA NA
Mzuzu City 0 NA NA NA
Nkhata Bay 0 NA NA NA
Rumphi 0 NA NA NA
Southern Balaka 1 15 15 15.0
Blantyre 3 14 15 14.3
Blantyre City 3 14 15 14.7
Chikwawa 6 14 16 14.8
Chiradzulu 3 14 15 14.3
Machinga 1 14 14 14.0
Mangochi 0 NA NA NA
Mulanje 4 14 15 14.2
Mwanza 5 14 16 15.2
Neno 3 15 16 15.3
Nsanje 6 14 16 14.8
Phalombe 1 15 15 15.0
Thyolo 3 14 16 15.0
Zomba 0 NA NA NA
Zomba City 3 15 26 20.0

 

Frequency

Over the 20-year span, 45 dry spells were observed. 50% of districts experienced a dry spell (16/32). Most dry spells (6) were observed in Chikwawa and Nsanje district. Analyzing the dry spells per region, the largest portion of dry spells occurred in the Southern Region (42/45). The Central region experienced 3 dry spells, while the Northern saw 0.

In the map below, the number of dry spells per district is shown.

Comparison with WFP’s analysis

We note some similarities, but also differences between these results and the Analysis of Predictable Food Crises in Malawi carried out in January 2020 by WFP.The analysis reported on the location, frequency and impact of dry spells at the Traditional Authority (TA; adm3) level in 2011-2019. This data was shared privately. Interesting similarities and differences include:

  • The most impacted years differ significantly. In WFP’s data the years with most dry spells are 2014, 2015, and 2017. In the dataset based on CHIRPS this are 2010, 2016, and 2017 (in the period from 2011-2019). The years refer to the year the rainy season started.

  • In both data sets, the districts in the Southern region experienced more dry spells than the Central and Northern regions. That is, the Southern region is more likely to experience dry spells.

  • However in WFP’s data, dry spells have occurred in all three regions, while in the CHIRPS data set none were observed in the Northern region

  • In both data sets Chikwawa and Nsanje are among the most severely impacted districts.

  • In both data sets, the frequency with which districts experience dry spells differ. I.e. the districts have different frequencies of exposure to dry spells.

Duration

Dry spells varied in duration from 14 days (by definition) to 26 days. Overall districts experienced dry spells that lasted an average of 17 days; individual districts’ means ranged from 14 to 25 days, confirming geographical variability in duration as well as in frequency.

We note that several districts experienced “interrupted” dry spells. For instance, a 15-day streak of no rain could be followed by a single day of > 2mm of rain itself followed by another 10 days of no rain. That single rainy day boosts the total rainfall for the 14-day period that follows it, preventing it from being labeled as a dry spell despite the lack of rainfall after that single day. While this is in accordance with the definition of dry spell used in this analysis, it is worth remembering that periods of dryness are more frequent and/or longer than the strict dry spell metrics can convey because of the undue influence of a single (or a few) rainy days.

We also note that there was only 1 instance of 2 dry spells in a single rainy season. This occurred in Nsanje in 2010.

Timing

We next looked at when dry spells were more likely to occur, as the timing affects the shock’s impact on crops. All dry spells occurred in December, January, February, and March. The majority started in February (46.7%). Followed by March (26.7%) and January (24.4%). Only very few dry spells occurred during December (2.2%). This may partly be due to our definition of rainy seasons. For onset, we require that a rainy streak not be followed by a 10-day period with less than 2mm rainfall in the next 30 days for the streak. Therefore by definition the first month of the rainy season cannot have dry spells. For cessation, once rainy days become rarer the criterion for cessation is likely to be met, ending the rainy season and the window during which dry spells are included in this analysis.

The breakdown by district is shown below.

Dry Spell Onset Months (% of district’s dry spells)
Region District Dec Jan Feb Mar
Central Ntcheu 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Ntchisi 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Salima 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Southern Balaka 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0
Blantyre 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0
Blantyre City 0.0 0.0 66.7 33.3
Chikwawa 16.7 33.3 33.3 16.7
Chiradzulu 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0
Machinga 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0
Mulanje 0.0 25.0 75.0 0.0
Mwanza 0.0 40.0 40.0 20.0
Neno 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0
Nsanje 0.0 16.7 50.0 33.3
Phalombe 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0
Thyolo 0.0 33.3 33.3 33.3
Zomba City 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0

The month in which a dry spell started is a good proxy for when in the growing cycle it occurred. However it would be appropriate considering the frequent late rainy (and likely planting) season onsets to examine instead how many days in the planting season the dry spell started.

Such an analysis would require a definition of Effective Planting Start such as WFP’s (two consecutive 10-day periods with at least 20mm of rain each after 1 Nov) as well as definitions of the periods when crops are most vulnerable, likely within days of planting and during flowering (how many days after Day 1 of Effective Planting Start?).

 

Addendum

Rainy Seasons

Duration is reported in days and rainfall, in mm.

Region District Season Onset Cessation Duration TotalRainfall
Southern Balaka 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Balaka 2000 2000-11-04 2001-03-23 140 976.3
Balaka 2001 2001-11-21 2002-03-23 123 817.7
Balaka 2002 2002-12-12 2003-03-28 107 805.0
Balaka 2003 2003-12-04 2004-03-15 103 638.4
Balaka 2004 2004-11-29 2005-03-15 107 530.9
Balaka 2005 2005-12-01 2006-03-27 117 897.8
Balaka 2006 2006-11-14 2007-03-26 133 846.7
Balaka 2007 2007-12-05 2008-03-15 102 758.1
Balaka 2008 2009-01-03 2009-03-23 80 527.6
Balaka 2009 2009-12-02 2010-03-30 119 721.6
Balaka 2010 2010-12-01 2011-03-24 114 635.3
Balaka 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 779.5
Balaka 2012 2012-12-09 2013-03-19 101 651.9
Balaka 2013 2013-12-17 2014-03-15 89 604.0
Balaka 2014 2014-12-17 2015-03-15 89 676.7
Balaka 2015 2016-01-14 2016-03-23 70 386.7
Balaka 2016 2016-12-01 2017-03-25 115 650.8
Balaka 2017 2017-11-12 2018-03-15 124 579.9
Balaka 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-21 118 1011.5
Balaka 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-15 109 573.7
Balaka 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-27 115 821.5
Balaka 2021 NA NA NA NA
Blantyre 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Blantyre 2000 2000-11-02 2001-03-30 149 1034.1
Blantyre 2001 2001-11-18 2002-03-23 126 783.8
Blantyre 2002 2002-12-15 2003-03-28 104 693.7
Blantyre 2003 2003-12-28 2004-03-15 79 449.1
Blantyre 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 528.4
Blantyre 2005 2005-11-09 2006-03-30 142 946.9
Blantyre 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-01 139 869.4
Blantyre 2007 2007-11-16 2008-03-16 122 793.3
Blantyre 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-01 89 512.5
Blantyre 2009 2009-11-23 2010-04-06 135 738.1
Blantyre 2010 2010-11-26 2011-04-05 131 713.6
Blantyre 2011 2011-12-17 2012-04-02 108 664.1
Blantyre 2012 2012-12-09 2013-03-18 100 598.1
Blantyre 2013 2013-12-17 2014-03-17 91 599.7
Blantyre 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-30 109 687.5
Blantyre 2015 2016-01-15 2016-03-23 69 343.1
Blantyre 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-26 121 784.7
Blantyre 2017 2017-11-15 2018-04-10 147 608.9
Blantyre 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-20 117 892.9
Blantyre 2019 2019-11-26 2020-03-25 121 563.0
Blantyre 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-23 112 750.1
Blantyre 2021 NA NA NA NA
Blantyre City 1999 NA 2000-03-29 NA NA
Blantyre City 2000 2000-11-03 2001-04-02 151 1208.1
Blantyre City 2001 2001-11-18 2002-03-23 126 929.1
Blantyre City 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-29 106 821.3
Blantyre City 2003 2003-12-28 2004-03-15 79 487.6
Blantyre City 2004 2004-11-17 2005-03-15 119 625.7
Blantyre City 2005 2005-11-08 2006-04-02 146 1087.4
Blantyre City 2006 2006-11-13 2007-04-13 152 1059.4
Blantyre City 2007 2007-11-13 2008-03-15 124 886.2
Blantyre City 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-03 91 638.3
Blantyre City 2009 2009-11-22 2010-04-06 136 858.3
Blantyre City 2010 2010-11-24 2011-04-08 136 879.1
Blantyre City 2011 2011-12-17 2012-04-02 108 770.0
Blantyre City 2012 2012-12-09 2013-03-19 101 662.3
Blantyre City 2013 2013-11-22 2014-03-18 117 755.3
Blantyre City 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 787.2
Blantyre City 2015 2016-01-15 2016-03-23 69 399.5
Blantyre City 2016 2016-11-23 2017-03-26 124 925.3
Blantyre City 2017 2017-11-13 2018-04-11 150 749.5
Blantyre City 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-19 116 988.5
Blantyre City 2019 2019-11-24 2020-03-25 123 678.4
Blantyre City 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 894.3
Blantyre City 2021 NA NA NA NA
Chikwawa 1999 NA 2000-03-24 NA NA
Chikwawa 2000 2000-11-05 2001-04-02 149 1060.5
Chikwawa 2001 2001-11-18 2002-03-24 127 741.5
Chikwawa 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-28 105 634.7
Chikwawa 2003 2003-12-28 2004-03-15 79 417.8
Chikwawa 2004 2004-11-27 2005-03-15 109 493.3
Chikwawa 2005 2005-12-01 2006-03-30 120 834.8
Chikwawa 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-01 139 849.2
Chikwawa 2007 2007-12-04 2008-03-15 103 680.3
Chikwawa 2008 2008-12-23 2009-04-02 101 528.7
Chikwawa 2009 2009-11-23 2010-03-15 113 639.5
Chikwawa 2010 2010-11-29 2011-04-04 127 712.1
Chikwawa 2011 2011-11-15 2012-04-02 140 737.0
Chikwawa 2012 2012-12-07 2013-03-15 99 592.6
Chikwawa 2013 2013-12-15 2014-03-15 91 606.3
Chikwawa 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 704.2
Chikwawa 2015 2016-01-16 2016-03-25 70 307.9
Chikwawa 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-26 121 917.8
Chikwawa 2017 2017-11-15 2018-04-10 147 663.9
Chikwawa 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-18 115 859.1
Chikwawa 2019 2019-11-26 2020-03-15 111 596.5
Chikwawa 2020 2020-12-01 2021-03-29 119 739.4
Chikwawa 2021 NA NA NA NA
Chiradzulu 1999 NA 2000-03-29 NA NA
Chiradzulu 2000 2000-11-03 2001-04-02 151 1170.9
Chiradzulu 2001 2001-11-18 2002-03-23 126 913.9
Chiradzulu 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-29 106 796.5
Chiradzulu 2003 2003-12-28 2004-03-15 79 470.9
Chiradzulu 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 592.3
Chiradzulu 2005 2005-11-09 2006-04-13 156 1073.2
Chiradzulu 2006 2006-11-13 2007-04-01 140 1015.7
Chiradzulu 2007 2007-11-16 2008-03-16 122 863.4
Chiradzulu 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-03 91 620.3
Chiradzulu 2009 2009-11-22 2010-03-19 118 737.0
Chiradzulu 2010 2010-11-24 2011-04-08 136 811.8
Chiradzulu 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 770.6
Chiradzulu 2012 2012-11-26 2013-03-18 113 739.3
Chiradzulu 2013 2013-12-17 2014-03-18 92 651.1
Chiradzulu 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 769.2
Chiradzulu 2015 2016-01-15 2016-03-23 69 405.7
Chiradzulu 2016 2016-11-23 2017-03-26 124 862.2
Chiradzulu 2017 2017-11-13 2018-04-11 150 720.4
Chiradzulu 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-20 117 995.9
Chiradzulu 2019 2019-11-26 2020-03-25 121 636.7
Chiradzulu 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 856.0
Chiradzulu 2021 NA NA NA NA
Northern Chitipa 1999 NA 2000-04-11 NA NA
Chitipa 2000 2000-11-15 2001-04-03 140 1048.5
Chitipa 2001 2001-12-06 2002-04-21 137 1017.4
Chitipa 2002 2002-12-13 2003-04-12 121 903.0
Chitipa 2003 2003-12-02 2004-03-17 107 736.4
Chitipa 2004 2004-11-26 2005-04-03 129 1090.7
Chitipa 2005 2005-12-20 2006-04-15 117 946.4
Chitipa 2006 2006-11-25 2007-03-19 115 1011.5
Chitipa 2007 2007-12-10 2008-03-23 105 830.1
Chitipa 2008 2008-12-17 2009-04-06 111 1032.6
Chitipa 2009 2009-12-16 2010-03-30 105 916.3
Chitipa 2010 2010-12-06 2011-04-21 137 1088.8
Chitipa 2011 2011-11-29 2012-04-18 142 900.3
Chitipa 2012 2012-12-11 2013-04-19 130 1078.5
Chitipa 2013 2013-11-29 2014-04-20 143 1212.2
Chitipa 2014 2014-12-27 2015-04-20 115 876.0
Chitipa 2015 2015-11-03 2016-04-09 159 1197.8
Chitipa 2016 2016-12-06 2017-04-26 142 1046.2
Chitipa 2017 2017-11-27 2018-04-17 142 1131.1
Chitipa 2018 2018-12-06 2019-05-03 149 1291.6
Chitipa 2019 2019-11-25 2020-04-09 137 1304.6
Chitipa 2020 2020-12-03 2021-05-03 152 1214.0
Chitipa 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Dedza 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Dedza 2000 2000-11-25 2001-03-30 126 960.5
Dedza 2001 2001-12-17 2002-03-22 96 893.9
Dedza 2002 2002-12-11 2003-04-03 114 1094.3
Dedza 2003 2003-12-13 2004-03-15 94 630.8
Dedza 2004 2004-11-24 2005-03-15 112 743.3
Dedza 2005 2005-12-02 2006-04-13 133 977.8
Dedza 2006 2006-11-19 2007-03-26 128 886.6
Dedza 2007 2007-12-09 2008-03-16 99 848.0
Dedza 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-02 90 649.6
Dedza 2009 2009-12-02 2010-04-05 125 979.5
Dedza 2010 2010-12-01 2011-04-09 130 860.7
Dedza 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-03 110 991.0
Dedza 2012 2012-12-06 2013-03-19 104 758.9
Dedza 2013 2013-12-15 2014-03-18 94 733.2
Dedza 2014 2014-12-22 2015-04-08 108 751.2
Dedza 2015 2016-01-12 2016-03-23 72 524.9
Dedza 2016 2016-12-03 2017-03-27 115 835.1
Dedza 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-12 152 957.9
Dedza 2018 2018-11-26 2019-04-16 142 1402.6
Dedza 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-22 116 719.1
Dedza 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-27 116 1084.8
Dedza 2021 NA NA NA NA
Dowa 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Dowa 2000 2000-12-01 2001-03-30 120 914.0
Dowa 2001 2001-12-21 2002-03-25 95 779.0
Dowa 2002 2002-12-10 2003-03-31 112 1064.6
Dowa 2003 2003-12-12 2004-03-15 95 651.8
Dowa 2004 2004-11-24 2005-03-16 113 771.2
Dowa 2005 2005-12-02 2006-04-13 133 852.7
Dowa 2006 2006-11-26 2007-03-23 118 944.5
Dowa 2007 2007-12-12 2008-03-16 96 826.8
Dowa 2008 2009-01-04 2009-04-04 91 645.4
Dowa 2009 2009-11-29 2010-03-31 123 965.4
Dowa 2010 2010-12-05 2011-04-01 118 839.6
Dowa 2011 2011-12-15 2012-04-03 111 1028.9
Dowa 2012 2012-12-10 2013-03-19 100 695.5
Dowa 2013 2013-12-14 2014-03-19 96 723.3
Dowa 2014 2014-12-24 2015-03-15 82 608.6
Dowa 2015 2015-12-12 2016-04-04 115 786.4
Dowa 2016 2016-12-03 2017-03-27 115 849.2
Dowa 2017 2017-11-17 2018-03-15 119 871.4
Dowa 2018 2018-11-28 2019-04-10 134 1354.7
Dowa 2019 2019-11-29 2020-03-26 119 743.4
Dowa 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-29 117 1180.6
Dowa 2021 NA NA NA NA
Northern Karonga 1999 NA 2000-04-11 NA NA
Karonga 2000 2000-11-16 2001-04-20 156 995.0
Karonga 2001 2001-12-11 2002-04-20 131 1030.2
Karonga 2002 2002-12-14 2003-04-26 134 855.8
Karonga 2003 2003-12-03 2004-03-17 106 665.7
Karonga 2004 2004-11-28 2005-04-16 140 934.3
Karonga 2005 2005-12-30 2006-04-16 108 899.4
Karonga 2006 2006-11-29 2007-03-20 112 871.7
Karonga 2007 2007-12-12 2008-03-24 104 786.0
Karonga 2008 2008-12-18 2009-04-06 110 923.7
Karonga 2009 2009-12-16 2010-03-31 106 839.4
Karonga 2010 2010-12-07 2011-04-23 138 1046.3
Karonga 2011 2011-12-06 2012-04-18 135 813.5
Karonga 2012 2012-12-13 2013-04-14 123 1000.9
Karonga 2013 2013-11-29 2014-04-21 144 1097.2
Karonga 2014 2014-12-27 2015-05-06 131 876.7
Karonga 2015 2015-12-13 2016-05-03 143 1023.6
Karonga 2016 2016-12-06 2017-05-08 154 1013.1
Karonga 2017 2017-11-28 2018-04-18 142 1018.4
Karonga 2018 2018-12-10 2019-05-11 153 1230.4
Karonga 2019 2019-11-28 2020-04-10 135 1183.7
Karonga 2020 2020-12-17 2021-05-04 139 1093.9
Karonga 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Kasungu 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Kasungu 2000 2000-12-01 2001-03-28 118 905.5
Kasungu 2001 2001-12-23 2002-03-28 96 752.8
Kasungu 2002 2002-12-11 2003-03-29 109 979.7
Kasungu 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-15 106 726.7
Kasungu 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-16 114 867.9
Kasungu 2005 2005-11-30 2006-04-07 129 772.1
Kasungu 2006 2006-11-16 2007-03-23 128 1092.5
Kasungu 2007 2007-12-12 2008-03-17 97 811.5
Kasungu 2008 2008-12-11 2009-04-04 115 730.0
Kasungu 2009 2009-11-12 2010-03-21 130 1107.9
Kasungu 2010 2010-12-05 2011-04-06 123 849.6
Kasungu 2011 2011-12-13 2012-04-03 113 1002.6
Kasungu 2012 2012-12-11 2013-03-25 105 690.4
Kasungu 2013 2013-12-14 2014-04-06 114 812.3
Kasungu 2014 2014-12-26 2015-03-15 80 597.3
Kasungu 2015 2015-12-11 2016-04-05 117 790.3
Kasungu 2016 2016-11-30 2017-03-27 118 802.5
Kasungu 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-11 151 1016.7
Kasungu 2018 2018-11-26 2019-04-11 137 1305.4
Kasungu 2019 2019-11-29 2020-03-22 115 757.4
Kasungu 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-29 117 1128.8
Kasungu 2021 NA NA NA NA
Northern Likoma 1999 NA 2000-04-08 NA NA
Likoma 2000 2000-11-16 2001-04-03 139 1180.2
Likoma 2001 2001-12-24 2002-04-08 106 1249.3
Likoma 2002 2002-12-11 2003-04-06 117 1066.7
Likoma 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-15 106 950.6
Likoma 2004 2004-11-27 2005-03-16 110 1004.9
Likoma 2005 2005-12-18 2006-04-14 118 934.1
Likoma 2006 2006-11-17 2007-03-15 119 1254.8
Likoma 2007 2007-12-13 2008-03-15 94 1100.9
Likoma 2008 2008-12-18 2009-04-02 106 935.4
Likoma 2009 2009-11-30 2010-03-23 114 1156.4
Likoma 2010 2011-01-13 2011-04-08 86 746.5
Likoma 2011 2011-11-29 2012-04-04 128 1065.1
Likoma 2012 2012-12-13 2013-03-19 97 847.4
Likoma 2013 2013-12-09 2014-04-08 121 1010.2
Likoma 2014 2014-12-26 2015-03-15 80 597.6
Likoma 2015 2015-12-15 2016-04-04 112 703.0
Likoma 2016 2017-01-05 2017-04-02 88 710.0
Likoma 2017 2017-11-28 2018-04-11 135 1114.5
Likoma 2018 2018-12-11 2019-04-08 119 1195.0
Likoma 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-23 117 1112.3
Likoma 2020 2020-12-15 2021-03-28 104 1331.9
Likoma 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Lilongwe 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Lilongwe 2000 2000-11-27 2001-04-03 128 918.0
Lilongwe 2001 2001-11-23 2002-03-23 121 862.1
Lilongwe 2002 2002-12-11 2003-04-03 114 1062.1
Lilongwe 2003 2003-12-11 2004-03-15 96 675.4
Lilongwe 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 734.3
Lilongwe 2005 2005-11-30 2006-04-13 135 901.7
Lilongwe 2006 2006-11-16 2007-03-25 130 955.3
Lilongwe 2007 2007-12-09 2008-03-16 99 801.6
Lilongwe 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-02 90 613.6
Lilongwe 2009 2009-11-12 2010-03-31 140 1089.6
Lilongwe 2010 2010-12-02 2011-04-09 129 887.0
Lilongwe 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-03 110 1062.9
Lilongwe 2012 2012-12-09 2013-04-07 120 758.8
Lilongwe 2013 2013-12-14 2014-03-19 96 731.1
Lilongwe 2014 2014-12-23 2015-04-17 116 728.1
Lilongwe 2015 2016-01-12 2016-04-04 84 571.4
Lilongwe 2016 2016-11-28 2017-03-27 120 871.4
Lilongwe 2017 2017-11-11 2018-04-12 153 1060.8
Lilongwe 2018 2018-11-26 2019-04-17 143 1366.8
Lilongwe 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-22 116 711.6
Lilongwe 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-27 115 1119.9
Lilongwe 2021 NA NA NA NA
Lilongwe City 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Lilongwe City 2000 2000-12-01 2001-03-29 119 857.7
Lilongwe City 2001 2001-11-23 2002-03-25 123 815.3
Lilongwe City 2002 2002-12-11 2003-04-03 114 1052.6
Lilongwe City 2003 2003-12-11 2004-03-15 96 617.1
Lilongwe City 2004 2004-11-24 2005-03-15 112 652.5
Lilongwe City 2005 2005-12-16 2006-04-13 119 778.5
Lilongwe City 2006 2006-11-16 2007-03-25 130 900.0
Lilongwe City 2007 2007-12-10 2008-03-17 99 750.6
Lilongwe City 2008 2009-01-04 2009-04-02 89 591.0
Lilongwe City 2009 2009-11-28 2010-03-19 112 933.1
Lilongwe City 2010 2010-12-05 2011-04-07 124 776.5
Lilongwe City 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-03 110 1025.3
Lilongwe City 2012 2012-12-10 2013-03-18 99 685.0
Lilongwe City 2013 2013-12-14 2014-03-19 96 693.4
Lilongwe City 2014 2014-12-23 2015-03-15 83 578.4
Lilongwe City 2015 2016-01-12 2016-04-04 84 561.4
Lilongwe City 2016 2016-12-01 2017-03-26 116 810.8
Lilongwe City 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-12 152 962.2
Lilongwe City 2018 2018-11-27 2019-04-11 136 1361.5
Lilongwe City 2019 2019-12-10 2020-03-26 108 628.5
Lilongwe City 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-29 117 1107.9
Lilongwe City 2021 NA NA NA NA
Southern Machinga 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Machinga 2000 2000-11-04 2001-03-30 147 1121.2
Machinga 2001 2001-11-22 2002-04-08 138 968.8
Machinga 2002 2002-12-11 2003-03-30 110 977.3
Machinga 2003 2003-12-04 2004-03-15 103 743.4
Machinga 2004 2004-11-30 2005-03-15 106 655.3
Machinga 2005 2005-11-30 2006-04-13 135 1188.5
Machinga 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-01 139 1031.2
Machinga 2007 2007-12-05 2008-03-15 102 856.4
Machinga 2008 2008-12-18 2009-04-01 105 769.8
Machinga 2009 2009-11-30 2010-03-19 110 793.8
Machinga 2010 2010-11-27 2011-04-09 134 844.5
Machinga 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 963.6
Machinga 2012 2012-12-09 2013-03-19 101 794.6
Machinga 2013 2013-12-15 2014-03-20 96 739.2
Machinga 2014 2014-12-17 2015-03-15 89 736.9
Machinga 2015 2016-01-13 2016-03-23 71 483.0
Machinga 2016 2016-12-02 2017-03-26 115 702.9
Machinga 2017 2017-11-17 2018-04-12 147 804.2
Machinga 2018 2018-11-25 2019-03-22 118 1156.6
Machinga 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-28 122 730.5
Machinga 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 1016.9
Machinga 2021 NA NA NA NA
Mangochi 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Mangochi 2000 2000-11-04 2001-03-30 147 1054.4
Mangochi 2001 2001-12-17 2002-03-23 97 832.7
Mangochi 2002 2002-12-11 2003-03-30 110 1003.0
Mangochi 2003 2003-12-17 2004-03-15 90 678.8
Mangochi 2004 2004-11-27 2005-03-15 109 648.2
Mangochi 2005 2005-12-03 2006-04-02 121 979.1
Mangochi 2006 2006-11-16 2007-03-25 130 905.3
Mangochi 2007 2007-12-09 2008-03-15 98 810.0
Mangochi 2008 2008-12-20 2009-04-02 104 718.1
Mangochi 2009 2009-11-30 2010-03-19 110 853.8
Mangochi 2010 2010-12-02 2011-04-09 129 764.8
Mangochi 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 880.6
Mangochi 2012 2012-12-09 2013-03-15 97 723.0
Mangochi 2013 2013-12-15 2014-03-19 95 675.6
Mangochi 2014 2014-12-22 2015-03-15 84 644.3
Mangochi 2015 2016-01-11 2016-03-23 73 472.5
Mangochi 2016 2016-12-06 2017-03-26 111 680.4
Mangochi 2017 2017-11-18 2018-04-11 145 789.4
Mangochi 2018 2018-11-25 2019-03-23 119 1144.2
Mangochi 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-26 120 686.5
Mangochi 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 1014.6
Mangochi 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Mchinji 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Mchinji 2000 2000-12-01 2001-03-30 120 910.6
Mchinji 2001 2001-12-17 2002-03-24 98 739.3
Mchinji 2002 2002-12-11 2003-04-03 114 997.8
Mchinji 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-15 106 753.3
Mchinji 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 794.0
Mchinji 2005 2005-11-29 2006-04-09 132 858.3
Mchinji 2006 2006-11-16 2007-03-23 128 1090.9
Mchinji 2007 2007-12-06 2008-03-17 103 814.1
Mchinji 2008 2008-12-08 2009-04-02 116 683.3
Mchinji 2009 2009-11-11 2010-03-30 140 1237.1
Mchinji 2010 2010-12-02 2011-04-09 129 933.9
Mchinji 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-03 110 1041.5
Mchinji 2012 2012-12-10 2013-03-21 102 654.3
Mchinji 2013 2013-12-13 2014-04-06 115 787.2
Mchinji 2014 2014-12-23 2015-04-17 116 650.4
Mchinji 2015 2016-01-12 2016-03-29 78 533.4
Mchinji 2016 2016-11-22 2017-03-26 125 850.4
Mchinji 2017 2017-11-11 2018-04-12 153 1104.7
Mchinji 2018 2018-11-25 2019-04-17 144 1161.7
Mchinji 2019 2019-11-27 2020-03-21 116 701.8
Mchinji 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-29 117 1062.9
Mchinji 2021 NA NA NA NA
Southern Mulanje 1999 NA 2000-04-14 NA NA
Mulanje 2000 2000-11-01 2001-04-02 153 1584.2
Mulanje 2001 2001-11-17 2002-03-23 127 1216.7
Mulanje 2002 2002-12-12 2003-04-02 112 995.1
Mulanje 2003 2003-11-07 2004-04-22 168 868.3
Mulanje 2004 2004-11-05 2005-03-15 131 845.0
Mulanje 2005 2005-11-08 2006-04-13 157 1349.0
Mulanje 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-02 140 1255.2
Mulanje 2007 2007-11-01 2008-03-17 138 1112.1
Mulanje 2008 2009-01-02 2009-04-02 91 780.8
Mulanje 2009 2009-11-23 2010-03-19 117 878.4
Mulanje 2010 2010-11-24 2011-04-09 137 1094.4
Mulanje 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 1058.1
Mulanje 2012 2012-12-07 2013-03-18 102 905.5
Mulanje 2013 2013-11-19 2014-03-19 121 875.0
Mulanje 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 944.9
Mulanje 2015 2016-01-15 2016-04-18 95 640.9
Mulanje 2016 2016-11-23 2017-03-26 124 1124.1
Mulanje 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-12 152 1044.0
Mulanje 2018 2018-11-23 2019-03-21 119 1310.1
Mulanje 2019 2019-11-20 2020-03-15 117 771.7
Mulanje 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 1020.4
Mulanje 2021 NA NA NA NA
Mwanza 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Mwanza 2000 2000-11-02 2001-04-02 152 1206.2
Mwanza 2001 2001-11-18 2002-03-22 125 777.8
Mwanza 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-28 105 761.2
Mwanza 2003 2003-12-26 2004-03-15 81 553.8
Mwanza 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 604.4
Mwanza 2005 2005-12-03 2006-03-30 118 957.7
Mwanza 2006 2006-11-14 2007-03-26 133 948.4
Mwanza 2007 2007-11-16 2008-03-15 121 770.6
Mwanza 2008 2009-01-01 2009-04-02 92 581.5
Mwanza 2009 2009-11-22 2010-03-15 114 839.5
Mwanza 2010 2010-11-29 2011-04-03 126 783.6
Mwanza 2011 2011-11-15 2012-04-02 140 840.0
Mwanza 2012 2012-12-08 2013-03-15 98 625.9
Mwanza 2013 2013-12-15 2014-03-15 91 712.0
Mwanza 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 796.3
Mwanza 2015 2016-01-15 2016-03-23 69 350.6
Mwanza 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-26 121 973.2
Mwanza 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-10 150 729.5
Mwanza 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-19 116 1051.5
Mwanza 2019 2019-11-24 2020-03-15 113 637.0
Mwanza 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 861.7
Mwanza 2021 NA NA NA NA
Northern Mzimba 1999 NA 2000-04-09 NA NA
Mzimba 2000 2000-11-06 2001-04-03 149 977.5
Mzimba 2001 2001-12-09 2002-04-09 122 847.5
Mzimba 2002 2002-12-12 2003-04-06 116 851.8
Mzimba 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-15 106 736.5
Mzimba 2004 2004-11-24 2005-03-19 116 814.4
Mzimba 2005 2005-12-20 2006-04-16 118 731.4
Mzimba 2006 2006-11-18 2007-04-08 142 982.0
Mzimba 2007 2007-12-13 2008-03-19 98 754.2
Mzimba 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-04 92 708.4
Mzimba 2009 2009-11-10 2010-03-23 134 1019.3
Mzimba 2010 2010-12-06 2011-04-10 126 872.1
Mzimba 2011 2011-11-30 2012-04-03 126 913.1
Mzimba 2012 2012-12-13 2013-04-14 123 815.3
Mzimba 2013 2013-11-27 2014-04-05 130 924.2
Mzimba 2014 2014-12-26 2015-03-15 80 520.1
Mzimba 2015 2015-12-14 2016-04-05 114 715.0
Mzimba 2016 2016-12-06 2017-03-29 114 749.3
Mzimba 2017 2017-11-28 2018-03-24 117 817.2
Mzimba 2018 2018-12-09 2019-04-16 129 1071.2
Mzimba 2019 2019-11-28 2020-04-09 134 934.0
Mzimba 2020 2020-12-03 2021-04-10 129 1086.8
Mzimba 2021 NA NA NA NA
Mzuzu City 1999 NA 2000-04-10 NA NA
Mzuzu City 2000 2000-11-02 2001-04-06 156 1066.4
Mzuzu City 2001 2001-12-10 2002-04-13 125 891.7
Mzuzu City 2002 2002-11-07 2003-04-06 151 1047.8
Mzuzu City 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-15 106 653.5
Mzuzu City 2004 2004-11-27 2005-03-28 122 697.0
Mzuzu City 2005 2005-12-19 2006-04-17 120 838.2
Mzuzu City 2006 2006-11-18 2007-03-23 126 880.6
Mzuzu City 2007 2007-12-08 2008-03-20 104 695.3
Mzuzu City 2008 2009-01-05 2009-04-05 91 726.0
Mzuzu City 2009 2009-11-06 2010-03-23 138 921.0
Mzuzu City 2010 2010-12-06 2011-04-11 127 887.0
Mzuzu City 2011 2011-11-15 2012-04-19 157 932.6
Mzuzu City 2012 2012-12-11 2013-04-14 125 876.5
Mzuzu City 2013 2013-12-16 2014-04-09 115 925.5
Mzuzu City 2014 2014-12-27 2015-03-15 79 423.1
Mzuzu City 2015 2015-12-15 2016-04-09 117 749.8
Mzuzu City 2016 2016-12-18 2017-04-21 125 772.4
Mzuzu City 2017 2017-11-27 2018-03-22 116 692.2
Mzuzu City 2018 2018-12-10 2019-04-20 132 973.2
Mzuzu City 2019 2019-11-28 2020-04-09 134 924.2
Mzuzu City 2020 2020-12-10 2021-03-30 111 966.5
Mzuzu City 2021 NA NA NA NA
Southern Neno 1999 NA 2000-04-11 NA NA
Neno 2000 2000-11-01 2001-04-02 153 1151.1
Neno 2001 2001-11-18 2002-04-08 142 856.5
Neno 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-29 106 779.7
Neno 2003 2003-12-27 2004-03-15 80 569.2
Neno 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 609.9
Neno 2005 2005-12-01 2006-03-30 120 969.6
Neno 2006 2006-11-14 2007-03-25 132 920.6
Neno 2007 2007-11-01 2008-03-17 138 860.9
Neno 2008 2009-01-02 2009-03-31 89 516.9
Neno 2009 2009-11-23 2010-04-04 133 863.1
Neno 2010 2010-11-26 2011-04-05 131 742.2
Neno 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 778.1
Neno 2012 2012-11-08 2013-03-18 131 749.2
Neno 2013 2013-11-22 2014-03-17 116 742.2
Neno 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 779.2
Neno 2015 2016-01-15 2016-03-23 69 359.2
Neno 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-26 121 840.9
Neno 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-11 151 716.2
Neno 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-20 117 1066.3
Neno 2019 2019-11-24 2020-03-15 113 586.3
Neno 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-28 117 862.0
Neno 2021 NA NA NA NA
Northern Nkhata Bay 1999 NA 2000-04-10 NA NA
Nkhata Bay 2000 2000-11-03 2001-04-08 157 1404.5
Nkhata Bay 2001 2001-12-06 2002-04-18 134 1259.0
Nkhata Bay 2002 2002-11-07 2003-04-06 151 1356.4
Nkhata Bay 2003 2003-11-29 2004-03-16 109 935.5
Nkhata Bay 2004 2004-11-23 2005-04-04 133 1047.9
Nkhata Bay 2005 2005-12-15 2006-04-17 124 1119.4
Nkhata Bay 2006 2006-11-15 2007-05-01 168 1319.4
Nkhata Bay 2007 2007-11-01 2008-03-20 141 1061.5
Nkhata Bay 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-05 93 1028.0
Nkhata Bay 2009 2009-11-06 2010-04-30 176 1373.5
Nkhata Bay 2010 2010-12-01 2011-04-11 132 1268.9
Nkhata Bay 2011 2011-11-27 2012-04-13 139 1221.5
Nkhata Bay 2012 2012-11-28 2013-04-14 138 1206.0
Nkhata Bay 2013 2013-11-24 2014-04-09 137 1324.0
Nkhata Bay 2014 2014-12-24 2015-03-15 82 572.9
Nkhata Bay 2015 2015-12-02 2016-04-09 130 1020.2
Nkhata Bay 2016 2016-12-06 2017-05-30 176 1278.5
Nkhata Bay 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-14 154 1302.9
Nkhata Bay 2018 2018-11-25 2019-04-23 150 1446.7
Nkhata Bay 2019 2019-11-27 2020-04-09 135 1315.4
Nkhata Bay 2020 2020-12-03 2021-04-16 135 1509.7
Nkhata Bay 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Nkhotakota 1999 NA 2000-04-08 NA NA
Nkhotakota 2000 2000-11-17 2001-04-03 138 1272.3
Nkhotakota 2001 2001-12-10 2002-04-17 129 1155.1
Nkhotakota 2002 2002-12-10 2003-04-04 116 1283.9
Nkhotakota 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-16 107 897.4
Nkhotakota 2004 2004-11-23 2005-04-03 132 1082.9
Nkhotakota 2005 2005-12-14 2006-04-13 121 1083.9
Nkhotakota 2006 2006-11-20 2007-04-13 145 1233.5
Nkhotakota 2007 2007-12-12 2008-03-18 98 1088.4
Nkhotakota 2008 2008-12-21 2009-04-04 105 1086.1
Nkhotakota 2009 2009-12-13 2010-04-06 115 1139.7
Nkhotakota 2010 2010-12-01 2011-04-10 131 1214.6
Nkhotakota 2011 2011-12-13 2012-04-03 113 1236.3
Nkhotakota 2012 2012-12-11 2013-03-19 99 872.7
Nkhotakota 2013 2013-12-14 2014-04-07 115 1072.1
Nkhotakota 2014 2014-12-23 2015-03-15 83 665.9
Nkhotakota 2015 2015-12-14 2016-04-18 127 900.3
Nkhotakota 2016 2016-12-06 2017-04-21 137 1052.0
Nkhotakota 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-14 154 1348.1
Nkhotakota 2018 2018-11-27 2019-04-13 138 1563.3
Nkhotakota 2019 2019-11-27 2020-04-09 135 1066.2
Nkhotakota 2020 2020-12-03 2021-04-05 124 1549.5
Nkhotakota 2021 NA NA NA NA
Southern Nsanje 1999 NA 2000-03-23 NA NA
Nsanje 2000 2000-11-04 2001-03-24 141 1197.7
Nsanje 2001 2001-11-18 2002-03-22 125 814.5
Nsanje 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-28 105 709.9
Nsanje 2003 2004-02-16 2004-03-30 44 216.0
Nsanje 2004 2004-11-27 2005-03-15 109 543.1
Nsanje 2005 2005-12-07 2006-03-30 114 894.5
Nsanje 2006 2006-11-14 2007-03-15 122 774.5
Nsanje 2007 2007-12-04 2008-03-15 103 686.9
Nsanje 2008 2009-01-01 2009-04-02 92 479.3
Nsanje 2009 2009-12-03 2010-03-15 103 529.6
Nsanje 2010 2010-11-26 2011-04-05 131 754.5
Nsanje 2011 2011-11-15 2012-04-02 140 785.1
Nsanje 2012 2012-12-05 2013-03-15 101 747.8
Nsanje 2013 2013-12-14 2014-03-15 92 648.9
Nsanje 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 730.3
Nsanje 2015 2016-01-16 2016-04-04 80 383.8
Nsanje 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-26 121 992.6
Nsanje 2017 2017-11-13 2018-04-10 149 799.2
Nsanje 2018 2018-11-23 2019-03-19 117 944.8
Nsanje 2019 2019-11-22 2020-03-15 115 653.9
Nsanje 2020 2020-12-02 2021-04-13 133 767.0
Nsanje 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Ntcheu 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Ntcheu 2000 2000-11-04 2001-03-28 145 1043.3
Ntcheu 2001 2001-11-21 2002-03-24 124 912.2
Ntcheu 2002 2002-12-11 2003-03-29 109 977.2
Ntcheu 2003 2003-12-04 2004-03-15 103 739.4
Ntcheu 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 668.0
Ntcheu 2005 2005-12-01 2006-03-31 121 1010.5
Ntcheu 2006 2006-11-15 2007-03-25 131 924.5
Ntcheu 2007 2007-12-06 2008-03-16 102 868.3
Ntcheu 2008 2009-01-03 2009-03-23 80 560.7
Ntcheu 2009 2009-12-01 2010-03-19 109 861.1
Ntcheu 2010 2010-12-01 2011-04-04 125 761.9
Ntcheu 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 895.7
Ntcheu 2012 2012-12-05 2013-03-19 105 791.8
Ntcheu 2013 2013-12-16 2014-03-18 93 694.8
Ntcheu 2014 2014-12-17 2015-03-31 105 797.9
Ntcheu 2015 2016-01-13 2016-03-23 71 430.5
Ntcheu 2016 2016-11-30 2017-03-25 116 762.5
Ntcheu 2017 2017-11-11 2018-04-11 152 794.7
Ntcheu 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-22 119 1188.9
Ntcheu 2019 2019-11-24 2020-03-15 113 667.7
Ntcheu 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-28 117 996.5
Ntcheu 2021 NA NA NA NA
Ntchisi 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Ntchisi 2000 2000-12-01 2001-04-03 124 1071.3
Ntchisi 2001 2001-12-21 2002-03-29 99 863.1
Ntchisi 2002 2002-12-10 2003-04-03 115 1189.3
Ntchisi 2003 2003-12-01 2004-03-16 107 786.1
Ntchisi 2004 2004-11-24 2005-04-02 130 945.0
Ntchisi 2005 2005-12-02 2006-04-13 133 980.8
Ntchisi 2006 2006-11-26 2007-04-08 134 1119.5
Ntchisi 2007 2007-12-09 2008-03-18 101 1019.1
Ntchisi 2008 2009-01-04 2009-04-04 91 815.6
Ntchisi 2009 2009-12-13 2010-04-02 111 983.8
Ntchisi 2010 2010-12-01 2011-04-09 130 1036.5
Ntchisi 2011 2011-12-13 2012-04-03 113 1134.3
Ntchisi 2012 2012-12-10 2013-03-19 100 745.4
Ntchisi 2013 2013-12-12 2014-03-19 98 819.9
Ntchisi 2014 2014-12-23 2015-03-15 83 659.6
Ntchisi 2015 2016-01-08 2016-04-04 88 651.0
Ntchisi 2016 2016-12-02 2017-03-27 116 911.6
Ntchisi 2017 2017-11-28 2018-04-14 138 1107.0
Ntchisi 2018 2018-11-27 2019-04-13 138 1422.6
Ntchisi 2019 2019-11-28 2020-03-23 117 837.4
Ntchisi 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-29 117 1287.5
Ntchisi 2021 NA NA NA NA
Southern Phalombe 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Phalombe 2000 2000-11-02 2001-04-02 152 1399.1
Phalombe 2001 2001-11-17 2002-03-23 127 1029.7
Phalombe 2002 2002-11-06 2003-03-30 145 1005.7
Phalombe 2003 2003-12-28 2004-03-15 79 495.0
Phalombe 2004 2004-11-14 2005-03-15 122 729.8
Phalombe 2005 2005-11-30 2006-04-13 135 1216.2
Phalombe 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-02 140 1126.1
Phalombe 2007 2007-11-17 2008-03-17 122 949.9
Phalombe 2008 2009-01-02 2009-04-01 90 665.2
Phalombe 2009 2009-11-28 2010-04-06 130 890.4
Phalombe 2010 2010-11-24 2011-04-08 136 894.2
Phalombe 2011 2011-11-06 2012-04-02 149 1024.1
Phalombe 2012 2012-12-08 2013-03-18 101 802.1
Phalombe 2013 2013-12-16 2014-03-19 94 731.9
Phalombe 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 826.8
Phalombe 2015 2015-12-06 2016-04-03 120 783.0
Phalombe 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-25 120 863.7
Phalombe 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-12 152 839.2
Phalombe 2018 2018-11-23 2019-03-21 119 1139.8
Phalombe 2019 2019-11-23 2020-03-15 114 693.9
Phalombe 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 933.5
Phalombe 2021 NA NA NA NA
Northern Rumphi 1999 NA 2000-04-12 NA NA
Rumphi 2000 2000-11-16 2001-04-03 139 982.5
Rumphi 2001 2001-12-06 2002-04-15 131 960.5
Rumphi 2002 2002-11-08 2003-04-06 150 927.3
Rumphi 2003 2003-12-02 2004-03-15 105 742.1
Rumphi 2004 2004-11-25 2005-04-16 143 984.5
Rumphi 2005 2005-12-19 2006-04-16 119 821.2
Rumphi 2006 2006-11-24 2007-03-22 119 964.2
Rumphi 2007 2007-12-11 2008-03-22 103 813.2
Rumphi 2008 2009-01-04 2009-04-04 91 783.2
Rumphi 2009 2009-11-09 2010-03-29 141 1005.1
Rumphi 2010 2010-12-06 2011-04-10 126 973.0
Rumphi 2011 2011-12-11 2012-04-04 116 756.5
Rumphi 2012 2012-12-13 2013-04-14 123 846.4
Rumphi 2013 2013-11-28 2014-04-08 132 1007.0
Rumphi 2014 2014-12-27 2015-04-18 113 730.6
Rumphi 2015 2015-12-12 2016-04-09 120 821.4
Rumphi 2016 2016-12-06 2017-04-26 142 906.7
Rumphi 2017 2017-11-28 2018-04-14 138 923.3
Rumphi 2018 2018-12-08 2019-05-04 148 1096.9
Rumphi 2019 2019-11-28 2020-04-09 134 1096.1
Rumphi 2020 2020-12-03 2021-05-02 151 1197.3
Rumphi 2021 NA NA NA NA
Central Salima 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Salima 2000 2000-11-26 2001-03-31 126 989.5
Salima 2001 2001-12-22 2002-03-27 96 862.4
Salima 2002 2002-12-11 2003-04-03 114 1062.0
Salima 2003 2003-12-15 2004-03-15 92 590.9
Salima 2004 2004-11-30 2005-03-15 106 727.3
Salima 2005 2005-12-14 2006-03-31 108 901.6
Salima 2006 2006-11-26 2007-03-26 121 942.7
Salima 2007 2007-12-09 2008-03-15 98 912.0
Salima 2008 2009-01-04 2009-04-02 89 688.0
Salima 2009 2009-12-13 2010-04-01 110 899.8
Salima 2010 2010-12-03 2011-04-04 123 833.6
Salima 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-03 110 941.0
Salima 2012 2012-12-10 2013-03-15 96 665.6
Salima 2013 2013-12-14 2014-03-19 96 710.1
Salima 2014 2014-12-23 2015-03-15 83 602.3
Salima 2015 2015-12-15 2016-03-24 101 660.5
Salima 2016 2016-12-06 2017-03-26 111 799.1
Salima 2017 2017-11-27 2018-03-23 117 748.7
Salima 2018 2018-12-02 2019-03-25 114 1154.7
Salima 2019 2019-11-29 2020-03-22 115 753.2
Salima 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-27 116 1125.6
Salima 2021 NA NA NA NA
Southern Thyolo 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Thyolo 2000 2000-11-01 2001-04-02 153 1406.6
Thyolo 2001 2001-11-17 2002-04-16 151 1154.4
Thyolo 2002 2002-12-14 2003-03-29 106 861.9
Thyolo 2003 2003-12-27 2004-03-30 95 527.9
Thyolo 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 652.7
Thyolo 2005 2005-11-08 2006-04-02 146 1162.5
Thyolo 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-02 140 1121.1
Thyolo 2007 2007-11-11 2008-03-15 126 951.5
Thyolo 2008 2009-01-02 2009-04-03 92 684.1
Thyolo 2009 2009-11-22 2010-03-15 114 784.3
Thyolo 2010 2010-11-26 2011-04-08 134 988.8
Thyolo 2011 2011-11-15 2012-04-02 140 960.1
Thyolo 2012 2012-12-05 2013-03-15 101 796.7
Thyolo 2013 2013-11-22 2014-03-15 114 802.0
Thyolo 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 853.7
Thyolo 2015 2016-01-16 2016-04-04 80 455.0
Thyolo 2016 2016-11-23 2017-03-27 125 1081.8
Thyolo 2017 2017-11-13 2018-04-10 149 894.9
Thyolo 2018 2018-11-23 2019-03-20 118 1116.6
Thyolo 2019 2019-11-23 2020-03-15 114 725.1
Thyolo 2020 2020-12-01 2021-03-29 119 913.8
Thyolo 2021 NA NA NA NA
Zomba 1999 NA 2000-03-26 NA NA
Zomba 2000 2000-11-02 2001-03-29 148 1259.8
Zomba 2001 2001-11-18 2002-04-16 150 1068.9
Zomba 2002 2002-12-12 2003-03-30 109 966.7
Zomba 2003 2003-12-19 2004-03-15 88 651.6
Zomba 2004 2004-11-23 2005-03-15 113 689.0
Zomba 2005 2005-11-30 2006-04-13 135 1238.7
Zomba 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-02 140 1087.5
Zomba 2007 2007-11-03 2008-03-17 136 1025.3
Zomba 2008 2009-01-03 2009-04-03 91 700.1
Zomba 2009 2009-11-29 2010-04-06 129 885.2
Zomba 2010 2010-11-24 2011-04-09 137 866.8
Zomba 2011 2011-12-16 2012-04-02 109 970.2
Zomba 2012 2012-12-08 2013-03-18 101 804.0
Zomba 2013 2013-12-17 2014-03-18 92 758.5
Zomba 2014 2014-12-12 2015-03-31 110 859.7
Zomba 2015 2015-12-16 2016-03-24 100 663.9
Zomba 2016 2016-11-26 2017-03-26 121 813.4
Zomba 2017 2017-11-13 2018-04-12 151 813.6
Zomba 2018 2018-11-24 2019-03-21 118 1173.2
Zomba 2019 2019-11-27 2020-03-26 121 703.5
Zomba 2020 2020-12-03 2021-03-29 117 988.3
Zomba 2021 NA NA NA NA
Zomba City 1999 NA 2000-03-25 NA NA
Zomba City 2000 2000-11-01 2001-04-02 153 1643.1
Zomba City 2001 2001-11-18 2002-04-18 152 1377.5
Zomba City 2002 2002-12-10 2003-03-29 110 1268.1
Zomba City 2003 2003-12-04 2004-03-15 103 928.3
Zomba City 2004 2004-11-22 2005-03-28 127 887.6
Zomba City 2005 2005-11-08 2006-03-28 141 1610.7
Zomba City 2006 2006-11-14 2007-04-13 151 1431.3
Zomba City 2007 2007-11-03 2008-03-18 137 1385.8
Zomba City 2008 2009-01-02 2009-04-04 93 966.6
Zomba City 2009 2009-11-30 2010-03-18 109 1034.4
Zomba City 2010 2010-11-24 2011-04-09 137 1158.0
Zomba City 2011 2011-11-07 2012-04-02 148 1384.2
Zomba City 2012 2012-12-08 2013-05-21 165 1220.9
Zomba City 2013 2013-12-15 2014-03-19 95 1019.4
Zomba City 2014 2014-12-11 2015-03-31 111 1187.5
Zomba City 2015 2015-11-10 2016-03-23 135 1000.8
Zomba City 2016 2016-11-23 2017-03-26 124 1076.7
Zomba City 2017 2017-11-12 2018-04-12 152 1106.4
Zomba City 2018 2018-11-23 2019-03-21 119 1595.1
Zomba City 2019 2019-11-24 2020-03-28 126 928.2
Zomba City 2020 2020-12-02 2021-03-29 118 1327.5
Zomba City 2021 NA NA NA NA
Note: Duration reported in days and Total Rainfall in mm.

 

Dry Spells

The complete list of dry spells is displayed below. Only dry spells that overlapped with the rainy season are included. Duration is reported in days and rainfall, in mm.

Region District Season FirstDay LastDay Duration TotalRainfall
Central Ntcheu 2004 2005-03-02 2005-03-25 24 1.7
Ntchisi 2004 2005-03-08 2005-03-26 19 1.2
Salima 2004 2005-03-02 2005-03-26 25 1.6
Southern Balaka 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 1.6
Blantyre 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.1
2009 2010-01-01 2010-01-14 14 1.7
2019 2020-02-26 2020-03-10 14 1.7
Blantyre City 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.0
2016 2017-03-06 2017-03-19 14 0.0
2019 2020-02-26 2020-03-11 15 0.0
Chikwawa 2004 2005-01-31 2005-02-13 14 0.5
2007 2008-02-11 2008-02-24 14 1.8
2009 2009-12-31 2010-01-14 15 1.9
2010 2011-02-21 2011-03-08 16 1.3
2017 2018-01-18 2018-02-01 15 1.3
2019 2020-03-02 2020-03-16 15 0.4
Chiradzulu 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.0
2009 2010-01-01 2010-01-14 14 1.0
2019 2020-02-26 2020-03-10 14 0.3
Machinga 2004 2005-01-31 2005-02-13 14 1.0
Mulanje 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.0
2009 2010-01-01 2010-01-14 14 1.9
2010 2011-02-22 2011-03-07 14 0.2
2019 2020-02-26 2020-03-10 14 1.0
Mwanza 2004 2005-01-30 2005-02-14 16 1.0
2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.2
2009 2010-01-01 2010-01-14 14 0.0
2010 2011-02-21 2011-03-08 16 1.2
2019 2020-03-02 2020-03-16 15 0.2
Neno 2004 2005-01-30 2005-02-14 16 2.7
2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.2
2010 2011-02-22 2011-03-08 15 1.9
Nsanje 2001 2002-02-20 2002-03-05 14 1.3
2003 2004-03-10 2004-03-25 16 0.7
2004 2005-01-31 2005-02-13 14 1.3
2010 2011-02-18 2011-03-05 16 1.8
2010 2011-02-22 2011-03-08 15 1.3
2016 2017-03-05 2017-03-18 14 1.1
Phalombe 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 0.0
Thyolo 2007 2008-02-10 2008-02-24 15 1.1
2009 2010-01-01 2010-01-14 14 0.0
2017 2018-03-05 2018-03-20 16 2.0
Zomba City 2004 2005-03-01 2005-03-26 26 0.0
2016 2017-03-07 2017-03-21 15 0.0
2017 2018-03-03 2018-03-21 19 0.0
Note: Duration reported in days and Total Rainfall in mm.

References

Dembélé, Moctar, and Sander J Zwart. 2016. “Evaluation and Comparison of Satellite-Based Rainfall Products in Burkina Faso, West Africa.” International Journal of Remote Sensing 37 (17): 3995–4014.
Dinku, Tufa, Pietro Ceccato, and Stephen J Connor. 2011. “Challenges of Satellite Rainfall Estimation over Mountainous and Arid Parts of East Africa.” International Journal of Remote Sensing 32 (21): 5965–79.
Kimaro, T. A., and H. Sibande. 2008. “Trends of Rainfall and Maize Productivity in Malawi.” Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology 31 (June): 72–82. https://doi.org/10.52339/tjet.v31i1.418.
Mathugama, SC, and TSG Peiris. 2011. “Critical Evaluation of Dry Spell Research.” Int. J. Basic Appl. Sci 11 (6): 153–60.
Mittal, Neha, Edward Pope, Stephen Whitfield, James Bacon, Marta Bruno Soares, Andrew J Dougill, Marc van den Homberg, et al. 2021. “Co-Designing Indices for Tailored Seasonal Climate Forecasts in Malawi.” Frontiers in Climate 2: 30.
Usman, Muhammad T, and CJC Reason. 2004. “Dry Spell Frequencies and Their Variability over Southern Africa.” Climate Research 26 (3): 199–211.
Zhao, Haigen, and Yanfei Ma. 2019. “Evaluating the Drought-Monitoring Utility of Four Satellite-Based Quantitative Precipitation Estimation Products at Global Scale.” Remote Sensing 11 (17): 2010.